Old Traditions, New Schisms: Part 3

Part 1
Part 2

After the excommunication of Lefebvre for his opposition to the pope and unauthorized consecration of bishops, many followers left the society. Some formed new groups, still dedicated to the pre-conciliar Mass but operating within the approval of the Church.  

And that’s how things stayed for about 15 years, even after Lefebvre died in 1991. In the early 2000s, efforts were made to reconcile members of SSPX with the Church. In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI authorized use of the 1962 missal as an “extraordinary” form of the Mass, to be used in limited circumstances. In 2009, he remitted the excommunications of 1988. But discussions on the issues of religious liberty, ecumenicism, liturgy, and sacraments stalled, as neither side would concede. In 2012, one of the men consecrated a SSPX bishop in 1988 administered the sacrament of confirmation to about 100 people; the act had not been authorized by society leadership. The society expelled the bishop. Apparently it was virtuous to illicitly administer sacraments when opposing Vatican leadership but not when opposing SSPX leadership.

In 2015, as part of the Year of Mercy, Pope Francis authorized that SSPX priests could licitly offer the sacrament of confession. In 2017, he authorized diocesan bishops to grant SSPX priests facilities to officiate marriages, meaning SSPX priests could come into a diocese at the local bishop’s discretion in order to officiate valid Catholic marriages. These were small but significant steps in bringing the society back into good standing with the Church.

Old Traditions, New Schisms: Part 2

Part 1

After losing his position as the superior general of the Congregation of the Holy Spirit and watching many of the documents passed at the Second Vatican Council go against his conscience, Lefebvre was approached by others in the traditionalist movement and asked to open a conservative seminary. He received permission from the bishop of Fribourg, Switzerland and opened a small seminary in Econe. In 1970, he established a society of priests called the International Priestly Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX). Pius X was chosen as the patron because of his opposition to socialism and his anti-modernist stance. The society initially received episcopal blessing and adhered to call canonical norms. Additional seminaries were opened in Michigan in 1973 and Rome in 1974.

The society focused on the formation of priests, believing well-formed, traditional priests was the most effective means at reforming the Church and society. It viewed the Second Vatican Council critically, believing it to be in line with the modernist and socialist movements of the 20th century, which they believed caused religious and social decline. The society does not outright reject the council, but it questions and even dismisses many of the council’s documents, especially those regarding religious tolerance, ecumenicism, unity, and liturgy.

SSPX is probably best known for its opposition to the liturgical changes of the Second Vatican Council. The New Roman Missel was published in 1970, which made significant changes to the prayers and readings of the Mass and allowed for the use of vernacular language, ad populum positioning, new music, and greater congregational participation. The society rejects the legitimacy of the post-conciliar Mass and openly expresses doubt of the validity of the universal Mass celebrated by more than a billion Catholics. Therefore, the society celebrates the Mass according to pre-conciliar missals.

Old Traditions, New Schisms: Part 1

Last week, the Vatican formally excommunicated the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). It was a long time coming, but it still made for big news. The society claims to support the Catholic Church and the pope yet also rejects many of the Church documents of the past 60 years. The Church has tried different approaches in bringing the group in line, ultimately drawing a line in the sand, hoping tough love will lead its supporters back into proper communion.

SSPX was founded by Marcel Lefebvre in 1970. Lefebvre was a conservative Catholic priest from France. In the 1920s he went to Rome to study, as his family thought the French seminaries too liberal. His political and religious positions were deeply shaped by his family and by French society in the early 20th century. His father was a monarchist who believed the Revolution had been Masonic and anti-Catholic; French monarchists believed a monarchy and powerful Church was the best structure for a Catholic society. Lefebvre later supported political movements like the Vichy government and National Front that suppressed religious liberty and tolerance.

In 1931 Lefebvre joined the Congregation of the Holy Spirit. He served in Gabon as a missionary then in the order’s seminary in France. In 1947, he was appointed vicar apostolic in Dakar and given the responsibility of overseeing Church matters across French Africa. In 1959, Lefebvre was one of 120 appointed to the preparatory commission for the Second Vatican Council.

Means to an Ends Time

Just hours after the attacks on Iran began, disturbing interpretations of the conflict emerged. The violence itself is disturbing enough, of course, but one hopes that there was a series of rational explanations that got us here. Yet, military personal began reporting that they were being told from higher ups to interpret the conflict through a (narrow) biblical lens. More than 100 service members across dozens of bases made reports to the Military Religious Freedom Foundation that commanders were framing operations as part of God’s plan for Armageddon and the return of Christ.

To this dangerous strain of Christianity, one wants to accelerate violence and tribulations in order to hurry Christ’s return. They interpret prophets as literal geopolitical predictions and the Book of Revelation as a blueprint in which they can be major players in controlling the narrative.

Iran is viewed as modern Persia. Israel (and ally U.S) as the modern Israelites. A war between them as the battle of Gog and Magog (Ezekiel 38). Interpretations always vary to accommodate current geopolitics; currently the prevailing idea is that Gog (Iran) and Magog (Russia/China) will invade Israel, with God supernaturally intervening to protect Israel. The Third Temple will be rebuilt, with the Dome of the Rock destroyed and a red heifer sacrificed. Jesus will come back and establish peace.

First, this is bad theology. Point blank. For most of Christianity, no one was concerned with concrete details of Christ’s return. He would keep His promises, He would return, and we must be ready for Him. It was a personal, spiritual call to prepared, like the brides with oil in their lamps.

500: The Anabaptists

Introduction to 500 series

As Zwingli was bringing about radical reformation in Zurich, there was a group of reformers who believed he was not going far or fast enough.

Conrad Grebel had been a student at the Grossmünster. He then attended the University of Basel, University of Vienna, and University of Paris, though he never finished a degree. However, much like Zwingli, he was introduced to the humanist ideas of the day.

Felix Manz’s father was a canon at the Grossmünster. In 1521, he and Grebel met while both attending studies at the church led by Zwingli. The study group studied Greek, the Latin Bible, the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament. Zwingli believed strongly in comparing translations of the Bible to original texts to derive true interpretation. 

When the city council debated abolishing the Mass and icons in 1523, the decision was to slowly fade out the practices rather than an outright rejection. They believed outright banning them would bring violent resistance, but that allowing Zwingli's ideas to flourish would naturally lead to the people rejecting Church practices. For the young radicals, this decision did not go far enough, nor such the civil city council be making religious decisions. The council was trying to appease the most people possible and avoid violent outbursts, but the radicals who had up until now followed Zwingli, felt that any appeasement was not following God. Fifteen men left Zwingli’s study group at that time and began their own study group.

500: An Affair of Sausages

Introduction to 500 series

At this point, Zwingli’s preachings, though deviating from Church teachings, have not aroused too much condemnation. The Church, in dealing with Luther, is reluctant to make statements against a priest pushing the boundaries, hoping that they can contain him rather than creating outrage and fracturing.

However, during Lent of 1522, Zwingli and about a dozen parishioners consciously broke the fasting rules. They distributed two smoked sausages. Zwingli preached the following Sundays that rules on food and fasting were not derived from the Bible and therefore to break the rules of fasting were not sins. This became known as the Affair of Sausages and is marked the start of the Reformation in Switzerland.

The Diocese of Constance felt that it had to react to Zwingli's blatant disregard of Church teachings. A delegation was sent to Zurich. In May, the bishop admonished Zwingli, the participating parishioners, and the city council. In turn, in July, Zwingli and some others petitioned the bishop to abolish the requirement of celibacy for clergy. The petition was printed in German and distributed to the public. It became known throughout the city that Zwingli had already secretly gotten married. The bishop responded, telling the Zurich government to maintain ecclesiastical order over their city.

500: Reformation Swiss-style

I originally did my 500 series in 2017 on the lead up to the 500th anniversary of Luther's 95 theses, considered the beginning of Protestantism. I didn't continue it, as the stories grow convoluted as different branches of faith arise in different areas with overlapping timelines. However, this year is the 500th anniversary of Anabaptism, a movement which many of my ancestors followed. So I will continue the series a bit on the lead up to the radical "re-baptizers." 

Ulrich Zwingli was born in 1484 in Switzerland into a family of farmers. At age ten, he was sent to school in Basel, then three years later went to Bern. He studied under the Dominicans, and it’s possible he became a novice. However, he did not join the Dominicans and instead went to the University of Vienna and the University of Basel. He was ordained a priest in 1506.

He served as a pastor in Glarus, a city whose soldiers served as mercenaries all over Europe. Zwingli served as a chaplain for several campaigns in Italy against the French. However, after the Battle of Marignano in 1515, the city began to side more strongly with the French (against the Papal States).

Zwingli, loyal to the pope, left to Einsiedeln monastery for two years, retreating from politics. He grew convinced that mercenary service was immoral, and he furthered his theological studies. He began corresponding with humanists, and even met with Erasmus twice. During this time, his theology evolved. He grew strongly convinced that doctrine must be backed up by scripture (rather than scripture, tradition, and Church documents). In December 1518 a post opened up at the Grossmünster in Zurich; his positions on humanist reform and opposition to the French/Italian politics were welcomed in Zurich, and he became the priest at the Grossmünster. (Note that this is about 14 months after Luther in Germany has posted his theses.)

God the Father

I recently watched the documentary “Shiny Happy People,” which looks at the abusive system of the Institute of Basic Life Principles, in which the Duggar family participated, and more broadly, how it is part of Christian Dominionism and Christian nationalism. Though familiar, the sheer size of this movement, the number of people affected by it, and it’s blatant authoritarian and civil goals, surprised me. I’m surrounded by its followers and affects, yet it isn’t a Christianity I can relate to.  

Dominionism and Christian nationalism arose in the U.S. in the 1970s in reaction to the progressive movements of the time. Christian nationalism seeks to eliminate the separation of church and state, place (their specific) religious symbols in the public square, and base laws on (their specific interpretation of) Christian theology. Dominion theology goes even further, seeking to establish a fundamentalist Christian nation, ruled by theocratic law. It encourages predominantly fundamentalist/evangelical/Pentecostal Christians to get politically engaged and gain control over all aspects of government, from local school boards to the SCOTUS.

Shake, Babble, and Roll

On Feb. 8, at the weekly chapel service at Asbury University, revival broke out. Students spontaneously kept worshipping for hours, then days—ultimately two weeks. As the news spread, people started traveling to the Methodist university in Kentucky to partake in the continuous testimonies, preaching, and music.

In truth, it made me uncomfortable. I don’t know what to do with revival—the spontaneous, emotive, communal outpouring. As a theological concept I can believe it—I affirm Pentecost. In actual, specific practice, I’m doubtful.

For the last few weeks, I’ve been thinking about what about it is so uncomfortable. I don’t want to deny those students’ experience. I won’t want to limit the way the Holy Spirit can work. I don’t want to question the sincerity or rationality of other Christians. But here I am, side-eying the whole situation.

Revivals have existed as long as Christianity—again, see Pentecost. Even in liturgical churches, there were events of spontaneous, emotional release. American religion was greatly shaped by the Great Awakenings. The 1906 Azusa Street Revival kicked off the modern Pentecostal movement. For a denomination named after method, the Methodists sure love holiness movements.

Revivals are movements of the Spirit—unplanned, unedited, unrestrained. The constraints of social decorum are untied. There is repentance and healing and praise. Even if one doesn’t see anything supernatural in revival, one can see its purpose: it’s a valve, releasing the pressure of people who face discrimination, injustice, oppression. It’s a commentary and rebuke on society. It’s a wild moment where you’re value isn’t determined by race or sex or class or merit. You are a sinner. You are a child of God.

But it’s still hard for me to say “this revival is real” or “this revival is just collective hysteria and emotive manipulation.” In truth, most revivals are probably both—there are individuals genuinely led to God in such an experience and others who just ride the emotional high until the lights come on and leave puffed up on how pious they are. There are preachers calling for true reform, in the church, in the world. There are conmen manipulating the crowd for gain.

I think we can at least ask, “Does this revival bear fruit?” That’s something that can’t be answered for a long time. It can only be seen in the lives of the participants, their testimonies, and any movements that arise. It can’t be answered in real time watching the live streams. Pentecost is only Pentecost because it is the start of something—the beginning of the Church. The people were transformed and continued to gather and spread the Gospel. If it had just been one, wild morning in Jerusalem, it wouldn’t have mattered. No one today would care about some old, obscure sect and their messiah.

I’ve known since sixth grade (with the first of annual trips to Methodist youth gatherings) that I’m not the kind of person who finds God in swaying, singing crowds. Give me a dead author over a hip speaker who can relate the youths. I will stay seated during when everyone else responds to the altar call. And I used to worry I was missing something that everyone else seemed to somehow know. Was everyone around me really so in touch with God and brimming with revived faith? What did it say about me if I found it all unappealing? And then arrogant disgust, that only a young teen can truly express, came. No, surely they were wrong. They were being manipulated. I’m above such undignified emotionalism.

It's hard to let go of that instinctive reaction when I hear of people being so moved by repetitive guitar chords and yelling, crying sermons. But I don’t want to try to put the Spirit in a box, only moving in ways I understand. I don’t need to shake or roll to receive the Spirit. He comes to me in solitude, in silence, in stillness. I will approach the altar. I will weep. I will respond and repent and be revived. But the time and place and mannerisms will not proclaim “revival.”

So I’m not going to jump on board, extoling the virtues of something just because it’s Christian and viral. But I’m going to be less quick to dismiss or condemn. Maybe the Spirit’s moving there—good; I hope He is. But it’s more important He’s moving here. I’ll sit still and wait.

500: Common Places and Confession

Introduction to 500 series

Philip Melanchthon was an academic who Luther recruited to the University of Wittenberg to teach Greek. He became critical of the traditional, scholastic theology being taught in universities at the time. In 1519 he began lecturing on the Gospel of Matthew and Paul’s letters. He was transferred to the theology department.

He defended Luther’s positions on the papacy while Luther was at Wartburg Castle. In 1521 he published Loci Communes. It outlines his thoughts on Christian doctrine from the Epistle to the Romans. Luther said, “Next to Holy Scripture, there is no better book.” It is considered the first book of Lutheran systematic theology and grandfathered Protestant scholasticism.

But perhaps his strongest influence was in the Augsburg Confession, written in 1530, outlining the doctrine of the Protestant Reformation. Emperor Charles V had called on the German princes to submit their religious convictions in an effort to establish political unity in the empire and rally a united support against Turkish invasion. The document contains 21 theses of Lutheran belief and 7 antitheses against the Church.

The Lutheran princes agreed to a military alliance with Charles V; any city or state that gave official assent to the Augsburg Confession could be admitted into the alliance. It solidified Protestant theology as a political player in Europe. The English translation of the Confession was read and assented to by King Henry VIII of England. The Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican Church were strongly influenced by the Confession.  In 1540, Melanchthon revised the Confession; the revised edition, called the Variata, was signed by John Calvin. Most Lutherans held to the “unaltered” edition.

The Augsburg Confession and the league did not truly settle the tension between Charles V and the Lutheran princes. The Schmalkaldic War took place 1546-1547. In September 1555, Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League (signers of the Confession) signed the Peace of Augsburg. The treaty legally divided the Holy Roman Empire and established cuius region, eius religio (“whose realm, his religion”) This allowed rulers to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism as their state religion. Citizens who held different beliefs were given a grace period to freely emigrate to a state holding to the other religion. There were a few mixed cities, where Lutheranism had been practiced since the 1520s but the city’s ruler was Catholic; certain princes and knights were given exemptions. 

For the most part, the Augsburg Confession was a success of modern negotiating. It balanced the rights of Catholic and Lutheran rulers and also considered the welfare of the subjects under them. However, it only recognized one Protestant doctrine, Lutheranism; thus, other Protestant sects that were rising still had no political power. But that would soon be challenged as well.

500: The Peasants Protest Too

Introduction to 500 series

Luther’s writings were being spread rapidly throughout literate Europe and gaining followers among academics and German nobles. At the same time, his views were being spread orally among the illiterate. They reached rural areas where communities already had loose catechesis and heretical ideas had nominally been practiced for years (see the result of the Plague). In 1521, three men later called the “Zwickau Prophets” arrived in Wittenberg. They preached that their authority came from the Holy Spirit, not Scripture or the Church. They rejected infant baptism and warned of a coming apocalypse.

Although their views differed wildly from Luther’s, they gained favor with some of Luther’s peers, including Andreas Karlstadt. On Christmas Day 1521, Karlstadt celebrated his first “communion service” in which he wore secular clothes, used German instead of Latin, rejected confession as a prerequisite for communion, and purged all references of sacrifice from the Mass. Luther eventually returned to Wittenberg in order to preach against the “fanatics.”

Karlstadt continued to grow more radical; he got rid of images and music in churches, got married, and rejected infant baptism. He denied the physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

Politically, the Zwickau Prophets preached an ideal Christian commonwealth, with commodities shared and all men held equal. These ideas were gaining traction among German peasants, who revolted against the aristocracy in the German Peasants’ War of 1524-1525. While all the complex causes and influences in the war are still subject to debate, I think it is clear that the individualism and anti-institutionalism expressed in the growing new religious movements inspired people to seek political change, and vice versa. If the Church is oppressive, then isn’t the king oppressive too? If each man is equal in political power, then isn’t his Biblical interpretations equal too? In both cases, the rural populace wants to be left alone and not told what to do.

Variations of this sort of religious movement popped up across Germany, Switzerland, Moravia, and the Low Countries. There are various pastors from the late 1520s and early 1530s who developed somewhat similar iconoclastic, credo-baptist, pacifist doctrines. The Swiss Brethren were one of the larger of these groups. In 1527 the Swiss Brethren published a confession of faith outline among other things adult-only baptism, symbolic Lord’s Supper, separation from worldly matters, and nonviolence. The belief that baptism of infants was invalid was a large competent of this group, and thus they begin “re-baptizing” adults, earning the name “Anabaptist” (“to baptize again”). Of course, other Christian groups did not recognize these second baptisms as valid. One of these leaders, Felix Manz, was executed by Protestants by way of drowning—a signal of their disapproval of “re-baptisms.”

I think the Anabaptist beginnings share a lot in common with the Awakenings that would spring up over the centuries and with the Pentecostal movement in the early twentieth century. The people outside of the academic circles and noble elites did not care much about complicated doctrines or edicts. They felt religion, and the zeitgeist valued appeals of individual emotion and rejection of foreign institutions.

500: Protesters become Protestant

Introduction to 500 series

Although Charles V had banned Luther’s writings throughout the Holy Roman Empire, Lutheranism was still gaining followers, and German princes were not enforcing the bans. At the Diet of Speyer in 1526, the princes officially professed their Lutheran faith. With Turkish invasion threatening, the empire could not risk alienating the heretical princes. It was decided that the matter of religion would be settled at a later time, and that in the interim, the princes should “rule, and believe as it may hope and trust to answer before God and his imperial Majesty.” While Charles V had no intention of granting religious freedom to Lutherans, (Charles V did not attend the diet, nor did he sign or oppose the edict from it), the princes took this vague instruction to “follow their conscience” and continue their Lutheran reforms, now with a claim of political credibility.

In 1529, there was another Diet of Speyer, again to deal with the issues of Turkish invasion and rising religious rebellion. The Catholic representatives sought to clarify that the princes could not choose what religious reforms took place. Ferdinand (later Ferdinand I), representing Charles V, condemned the princes’ interpretation and reiterated that the Holy Roman Empire was Catholic. This diet forbade any reforms on the threat of imperial ban and upheld the Edict of Worms. It also clarified that fringe reform movements, like Zwinglianism and Anabaptism, could be punished by death.

The Lutheran representatives, seeing their movement delegitimized, entered a legal protest on April 25, 1529. Six princes and 14 representatives of Imperial Free Cities protested the measures of the Diet of Speyer which they saw as contrary to their beliefs and to the decisions made at the first Diet of Speyer. They asked for a judgment overturning the majority decision of the diet. From this protest came the word “Protestant.” 

Protestantism now commonly refers to all Western Christian branches that are not Catholic or Orthodox. The branches of Protestantism are so varied, it seemed pointless at times to put them under a single term. Yet they all still branch from splitting from the Catholic Church. They may not formally protest the Diet of Speyer, but they are still sects that arose from protest.  

500: The Levy Breaks

Introduction to 500 series

After Luther posted his 95 theses for debate, several copies were made and distributed among German intellectuals. In January of 1518, the theses were translated from Latin into German. Within two weeks, it spread throughout Germany. Within two months, it spread throughout Europe. Foreign students came to Wittenburg to hear Luther; he published several commentaries over the next two years on books of the Bible—his concepts of justification, predestination, and the solas developed further during this time.

Meanwhile, the archbishop of Mainz had not responded to the theses; rather, he forwarded them on to Rome. Pope Leo X was not one to rush a hasty response. He sent papal theologians and envoys to inquire. A Dominican theologian Mazzolini drafted heresy charges against Luther. It was agreed to that Luther could be tried in Augsburg in October 1518. The questioning was regarding the issue of the pope’s right to issue indulgences. The papal legate had instructions to arrest Luther if he did not recant, but Luther fled the city instead.

In January 1519 in Saxony, Luther made some concessions to the papal nuncio. However, Johann Eck wanted Luther’s doctrine to be made public and exposed as heretical. Johann Eck was a Catholic theologian who regarded Luther as a new Hussite. In the summer of that year, he staged debates between himself and Andreas Karlstadt, a Luther defender. The latter debates were between Eck and Luther. Luther was superior in education and skill. Yet Eck did succeed in proving that Luther did hold some opinions held by heretic Hussites and that he believed some councils to be errant. Theologians at the University of Leipzig declared Eck the victor.  

Eck tried to get the Elector Frederick of Saxony to burn Luther’s works. In 1519 alone, he published eight writings against the Lutheran movement. While he had support from Rome and in some universities, he failed to gather much support in Germany, where many theologians and noblemen were siding with Luther. In 1520, he met with Pope Leo X, who praised his work, but still had not taken decisive action regarding Luther.  

After explaining the situation to the pope, Eck returned to Germany with the papal bull Exsurge Domine charging that 41 propositions of Luther were erroneous or heretical. He thought this would finally quash the Lutheran movement as well as the humanists. However, he was met with insults and protests that prevented him from publically reading the bull. He had to flee both Saxony and Freiberg.

The papal bull Exsurge Domine in June 1520 declared that Luther had 60 days to recant 41 statements found in his writings or risk excommunication. The papal nuncio tried to broker a deal, but it fell apart. Luther burned the bull at Wittenberg on December 10. On January 3, 1521, Pope Leo X formally excommunicated him.

The Church had declared him a heretic, but it was now the local, secular state’s problem to deal with him. On April 18, 1521, Luther was ordered to appear before The Diet of Worms—a general assembly of the Holy Roman Empire, with Emperor Charles V presiding. The issue was regarding the enforcement of the ban of Luther’s theses. Eck represented the Empire. Luther stated that he could no longer trust the pope or the councils and could interpret Scripture on his own. Eck argued that many heretics held to their interpretations of Scripture as well.

The Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw and banned his writings. It was made a crime for anyone in Germany to give him food or shelter. He could be killed without legal consequence. However, he found refuge in Wartburg Castle. His writings continued to spread.

While he failed to stop the flood of Lutheran fervor in Germany, Eck contributed greatly to the Catholic Reformation in his works attacking the flaws and heresies in the new doctrines. He worked closely with Protestants in understanding and counter-arguing their theologies and the Protestant Revolution rolled on.

500: Martin Luther

Introduction 

Part 1: Black Death

Part 2: Holy Roman Empire
Part 3: Fifth Lateran Council

Martin Luther was born in 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, part of the Holy Roman Empire. His father operated a mining business but wanted to see his eldest son become a lawyer, so Martin was well-educated. He spent three years attending a school run by the Dutch lay community Fratres Vitae Communis (Brethren of the Common Life). The group lived in common houses, giving up personal possessions, and spent the day in prayer, working, and reading scripture aloud. (Erasmus also studied with them.) In 1501 Luther went to the University of Erfurt. In 1505 he entered then quickly dropped out of law school, taking up theology instead. He became an Augustinian monk.

In the cloistered Augustinian order, Luther spent his days fasting, praying, and going to frequent confession. It’s sad that he suffered from scrupulosity, or pathological guilt and doubt. He struggled to feel forgiven and would go to confession multiple times a day. In 1507 Luther was ordained a priest. The next year he began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg During his course of studies, he began to emphasize the role of faith in salvation. He received his doctorate of theology from the university on October 12, 1512.

On October 31, 1517, Luther wrote a letter to the Bishop of Mainz, arguing against several Church practices. “Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences,” commonly known as the Ninety-five Theses, addressed Luther’s concerns, most notably, the selling of indulgences. Dominican friar Johann Tetzel had arrived in Germany in 1516, selling indulgences for fundraising of the basilica in Rome. He is often credited with the phrase, “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” 

In typical debate fashion for universities at the time, Luther posted a copy of the letter in a public forum, the church door at All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg the day before All Saints Day. I think it’s important to emphasize that Luther had no intention to break away from the Church. He was seeking a response to practices he saw as unhealthy. He sought only internal critique and reform. In January, copies of the letter were translated from Latin into German. Within weeks, the letter spread throughout Europe. The Protestant Reformation was underway. 

 

500: Fifth Lateran Council

Introduction 

Part 1: Black Death

Part 2: Holy Roman Empire 

In the early 1500s, the papal states were facing political opposition from Italian and French states. Venice was filling episcopal seats without Church approval and subjecting clergy to state tribunals. Pope Julius II sent in armies to get Venice back in line. Meanwhile, King Louis XII of France demanded Florence give allegiance to France, which would almost certainly start a war between the papal states and France. (Florence sent Niccolo Machiavelli to France as their diplomatic representative during this.) Pope Julius II wanted Italian states free from foreign influence. France tried to convene a general council in Pisa, intending to restrict the pope’s poltiical power, but the German princes refused to get involved and Maximillian I, who had at first supported the council, withdrew his support when the Germans refused. Without popular support in Pisa, the council moved to Milan, then Lyon, before disbanding the same year.

In response to the French council, Pope Julius II convened the Fifth Lateran Council in 1512. He deposed four cardinals of their offices and excommunicated participants of the conciliabulum council in Pisa. Ambassadors of Maximillian I and Louis XII announced that their leaders rejected any decisions made in Pisa. The council closed under Pope Leo X in March 1517.

While political in much of its proceedings, the council addressed ecclesiastical business as well. There was a bull to sanction the monti di pieta (Mount of Piety). These financial institutions had been set up about a century earlier as a charitable alternative to money lending. Designed to benefit the borrower, they operated similar to a pawn shop and offered low-interest loans (in theory). Through the council, they were put under stricter ecclesiastical supervision with the aim to aid the poor in favorable terms (not falling into usury, like banks).

Another result of the council was that a local bishop had to give permission before the printing of a new book in his see. Since the movable type press in 1439, literacy and the production and spread of books had boomed. There was also a requirement for documented competence in preaching. Clergy had to complete a regulated course of studies in philosophy. Both these things addressed the Church’s need to keep foreign political and religious ideas from the pamphlet and the pulpit. Finally, the council affirmed “the truth of the enlightened Christian faith.”

Only a few months later, Martin Luther nailed his theses on the door of Wittenberg Cathedral. Several historians believe that the Fifth Lateran Council never had a chance to be properly implemented, because the Church had to focus on the watershed of Protestantism. Some also believe that if Martin Luther had seen the implementation of the council, his criticisms would have been lessened. However, it didn’t work out that way. But I think it’s clear that the Fifth Lateran Council shows that political struggles, rising Protestant thought, and Church efforts for reform were already well-established in Europe before Luther.